Sources on food safety and health

A comparative study of infrared and microwave heating for microbial decontamination of paprika powder

Lovisa Eliasson, Sven Isaksson, Maria Lövenklev, Lilia Ahrné · Frontiers in Microbiology 6: 1071 · 2015

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Naturally contaminated paprika powder adjusted to water activity 0.88, heated to 98 °C by infrared or microwave and held for up to 20 min. Read in the abstract and conclusions only. Competent for the reductions in mesophilic bacteria under those conditions; it reports no colour or volatile data in the parts read.

doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01071

Also listed under: Food science and processing

A Risk-Based Framework for Ranking Microbiological Hazards and Identifying Mitigation Strategies for Dried Fruits, Vegetables, Herbs, and Spices Used in Ready-to-Eat Foods

Heidy M. W. den Besten, Linda J. Harris, Jennifer C. Acuff, Francois Bourdichon, Rob Limburn, Andreja Rajkovic, Anett Winkler, et al. · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 25(5): e70567 · 2026

Academic paper · Read in full · High reliability

A review of microbiological hazards in dried plant foods and of the treatments used against them. Read for the introduction, the passage on gaseous treatments, and the sections on outbreaks, prevalence and survival. Competent for the regulatory standing of ethylene oxide as the review states it, the count of European notifications it reports, and its ranking of hazards in spices; it gives no dates for the bans, and its prevalence figures are the studies it reviews, not new surveys.

doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.70567

Also listed under: Standards and trade; History and archaeology

Aflatoxins and Fumonisins: Assessment Methods, Biomarkers of Exposure, Modified Forms, Co-Exposure, and Impact on Human Health

Leakey Kuloba, Andrzej Wasik · Molecules 31(13): 2279 · 2026

Academic paper · Medium reliability

A review of analytical methods for aflatoxins and fumonisins, mainly in maize and groundnuts. Read in the abstract. Cited only for its statement that modified mycotoxins evade routine detection, which is a property of the methods rather than of the crop.

doi.org/10.3390/molecules31132279

Also listed under: Chemistry

Aflatoxins contamination in spices marketed in selected areas of Tanzania and their Detection by Chromatographic Technique

Sharifa Juma, Clarence Mgina, Kessy F Kilulya · African Health Sciences 24(2): 140-151 · 2024

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Total aflatoxins by HPLC with fluorescence detection in 84 samples of black pepper, turmeric, cardamom and garlic from Tanzania. Read in the abstract only, part of which is garbled; only the proportions are used.

doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v24i2.17

Africa, an Emerging Exporter of Turmeric: Combating Fraud with Rapid Detection Systems

Wilfred Angie Abia, Simon A. Haughey, Radhika, Brandy Perkwang Taty, Heidi Russell, Manus Carey, Britt Marianna Maestroni, Awanwee Petchkongkaew · Foods 14(9): 1590 · 2025

Academic paper · Medium reliability

A systematic review of turmeric adulterants and detection methods, with global food-safety alerts used to rank the adulterants. Read in the abstract. Competent for the tiered arrangement it proposes — portable XRF to screen, mass spectrometry to confirm.

doi.org/10.3390/foods14091590

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Analysis of Multi-Mycotoxins in Commonly Consumed Spices Using the LC-MS/MS Method for Assessing Food Safety Risks

Burak Demirhan, Buket Er Demirhan · Microorganisms 11(7): 1786 · 2023

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone by LC-MS/MS in 140 samples of black pepper, red pepper, cumin and turmeric bought in Ankara, Türkiye. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the ranges and the counts above the Turkish limits.

doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11071786

Assessment of Aflatoxins and Heavy Metals in Zingiber officinale (Ginger) Across the Value Chain in Kaduna and Oyo States, Nigeria and the Use of Probiotics for Aflatoxin Detoxification

Titilayo D O Falade, Iyanu Lydia Ibrahim, Kolawole Banwo, Valery Pierre Sinda-Kemdoum, Rousseau Djouaka · Foods 15(15): 2620 · 2026

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Aflatoxins and heavy metals in 95 ginger samples along the value chain in Kaduna and Oyo States, Nigeria, with a probiotic detoxification trial. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the aflatoxin incidence and exceedances; the probiotic and intake findings are not cited.

doi.org/10.3390/foods15152620

Assessment of contamination of Salmonella spp. in imported black pepper and sesame seed and Salmonella inactivation by gamma irradiation

Maria Cristina D’Oca, Anna Maria Di Noto, Antonio Bartolotta, Aldo Parlato, et al. · Italian Journal of Food Safety 10(1): 8914 · 2021

Academic paper · Medium reliability

Salmonella in black pepper and sesame from Italian markets, and the reduction of inoculated S. Montevideo by gamma irradiation at 1–5 kGy. A small study; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.4081/ijfs.2021.8914

Bacterial spores in spices and dried herbs: the risks for processed food

Anne Gabrielle Mathot, Florence Postollec, Ivan Leguerinel · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 20(1): 840–862 · 2021

Academic paper · High reliability

A review of the prevalence and levels of spore-forming bacteria, chiefly Bacillus and Clostridium, across commercially available spices, and of the harvest, drying and processing steps that introduce them. Competent for the pattern across the literature; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12690

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Biogenic amines analysis and microbial contribution in traditional fermented food of Douchi

Lu Li, Liying Ruan, Anying Ji, Zhiyou Wen, Shouwen Chen, Ling Wang, Xuetuan Wei · Scientific Reports 8: 12567 · 2018

Academic paper · Read in full · High reliability

Fifteen douchi bought in fifteen regions of China, with six biogenic amines measured by liquid chromatography and the bacteria and fungi found by sequencing. Read through Europe PMC: the abstract, the introduction, the list of samples and the first results section with its account of the amine contents. The sections on isolated strains and on the model fermentation were not read. Competent for the range of each amine in those fifteen samples and for how the authors set them against thresholds taken from other work. The thresholds are the authors’ citations, not limits read at source, and the paper does not say which type of douchi each sample was.

doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-30456-z

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Characterization of toxigenic genes of Bacillus cereus strains isolated from different spices sold in Algeria

Redhwane Madouri, Mohammed Ziane, Farouk Benaceur, Gizem Cufaoglu · Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 55(4): 3495-3501 · 2024

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Prevalence of Bacillus cereus spores and their toxin genes in 191 spice and herb samples from Laghouat, Algeria. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the prevalence, count range and gene profile the abstract reports; not for results by spice beyond those named.

doi.org/10.1007/s42770-024-01514-8

Combined effects of gamma-irradiation and modified atmosphere packaging on quality of some spices

Celale Kirkin, Blagoj Mitrevski, Gurbuz Gunes, Philip J. Marriott · Food Chemistry 154: 255–261 · 2014

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Ground thyme, rosemary, black pepper and cumin packed in air or nitrogen and gamma-irradiated at 7, 12 and 17 kGy, with microbial counts, colour and essential oil. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the comparison between air and nitrogen packs.

doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.002

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Continuous decontamination of cumin seed by non-contact induction heating technology: Assessment of microbial load and quality changes

Edris Rahmati, Mohammad Hadi Khoshtaghaza, Ahmad Banakar, Mohammad-Taghi Ebadi, Zohreh Hamidi-Esfahani · Heliyon 10(4): e25504 · 2024

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Cumin seed passed through a laboratory non-contact induction heater at 115 to 155 °C for 45 to 75 s, with microbial counts, colour and essential oil. Read in the abstract and conclusions only. Competent for the reductions and the statement that oil content did not differ significantly from the control.

doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25504

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Does the treatment of dried herbs with ozone as a fungal decontaminating agent affect the active constituents?

Salama A. Ouf, Enas M. Ali · Environmental Pollution 277: 116715 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Nine powdered sun-dried herbs and spices exposed to ozone at 3 ppm for up to 280 min, with fungal counts, mycotoxin production by isolates and essential oil volume. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the fungal reductions and the oil losses reported for chamomile and peppermint.

doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116715

Also listed under: Chemistry

Dry pasteurization of paprika (Capsicum annuum L.) by short time intensive microwave-infrared radiation: Inactivation of Salmonella Typhimurium and Aspergillus flavus considering quality degradation kinetics

Shivanand Shankarrao Shirkole, Arun Sadashiv Mujumdar, Rasu Jayabalan, Parag Prakash Sutar · Food Chemistry 338: 128012 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Combined microwave-infrared heating of paprika, with inactivation of inoculated Salmonella Typhimurium and Aspergillus flavus and the kinetics of pigment loss. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the reductions and the direction of the colour change.

doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128012

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Effect of electron beam irradiation on color and microbial bioburden of red paprika

Jose M. Nieto-Sandoval, Luis Almela, Jose A. Fernández-López, Jose A. Muñoz · Journal of Food Protection 63(5): 633–637 · 2000

Academic paper · High reliability

Electron-beam irradiation of red paprika at 0–12.5 kGy, with microbial counts and colour measured two ways: extractable colour by the ASTA method and apparent colour by reflectance in CIELAB. Read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-63.5.633

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Effect of Gamma-irradiation on Color, Pungency, and Volatiles of Korean Red Pepper Powder

J.H. Lee, T.H. Sung, K.T. Lee, M. R. Kim · Journal of Food Science 69(8): C585–C592 · 2004

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Vacuum-packed Korean red pepper powder gamma-irradiated at up to 7 kGy, with capsaicinoids, capsanthin, ASTA and Hunter colour, sensory tests and headspace volatiles. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the statements that pungency and colour were unchanged and that the volatile profile shifted.

doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.tb09904.x

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Effect of X-ray, gamma ray, and electron beam irradiation on the hygienic and physicochemical qualities of red pepper powder

Koo Jung, Beom-Seok Song, Min Jung Kim, Byeong-Geum Moon, Seon-Min Go, Jae-Kyung Kim, Yun-Jong Lee, Jong-Heum Park · LWT - Food Science and Technology 63(2): 846–851 · 2015

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Red pepper powder irradiated with gamma rays, electron beams or X-rays at up to 10 kGy, with microbial counts, capsaicinoids, capsanthin, colour and a sensory panel. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the comparison of the three sources and the sensory result.

doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.04.030

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Effectiveness of Ethylene Oxide and Gamma Irradiation on the Microbiological Population of Three Types of Paprika

S. Llorente Franco, J. L. Giménez, F. Martínez Sánchez, F. Romojaro · Journal of Food Science 51(6): 1571–1572 · 1986

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Three commercial Spanish paprikas treated with ethylene oxide or gamma irradiation and stored with and without refrigeration, with microbial counts. Read in the abstract only, which is a brief summary. Competent for the comparison of the two treatments in that study; it gives no figures and no quality measures.

doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13866.x

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Effects of a combination treatment of cold atmospheric plasma, vacuum packaging, and hot water on inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium on black pepper

Won-Jae Song · Food Science and Biotechnology 34(10): 2373-2380 · 2025

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Cold atmospheric plasma, vacuum packing and hot water against E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium on black pepper, with colour and piperine. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the reductions reported.

doi.org/10.1007/s10068-025-01845-8

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Efficiency of Ozone Applied in Flow and at Low Pressures in the Inactivation of Salmonella in Black Peppercorns (Piper nigrum L.) and the Effects of Ozone Treatment on Grain Quality and Essential Oil Composition

Handina da Graça Lurdes Langa Massango, Lêda Rita D’Antonino Faroni, Maria Cristina Dantas Vanetti, Ernandes Rodrigues de Alencar, Marcus Vinícius de Assis Silva, Alessandra Aparecida Zinato Rodrigues, Paulo Roberto Cecon, Carollayne Gonçalves Magalhães, Daniele Almeida Teixeira, Letícia Elisa Rossi · Foods 14(13): 2215 · 2025

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Inactivation of a Salmonella cocktail on black peppercorns by ozone in flow and at low pressure, with quality and essential-oil measurements. Read in the abstract only. Competent for which treatment left Salmonella undetectable in 25 g.

doi.org/10.3390/foods14132215

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Enterotoxins and emetic toxins production by Bacillus cereus and other species of Bacillus isolated from Soumbala and Bikalga, African alkaline fermented food condiments

L. I. Ouoba, L. Thorsen, A. H. Varnam · International Journal of Food Microbiology 124(3): 224–230 · 2008

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Forty-one Bacillus isolates from soumbala and bikalga screened for toxin production in broth and in fermenting African locust bean, and for toxin genes. Read in the abstract only, as Europe PMC holds it. Competent for which species produced enterotoxin under those tests. The abstract pools the isolates of the two condiments and does not say how many came from bikalga, and the test fermentation was of locust bean, not of roselle seed.

doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.03.026

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Ethylene oxide incident — sesame seeds

European Commission, Alert and Cooperation Network

Government publication · High reliability · Speaks for European Union

The Commission record of the incident in which ethylene oxide residues were found in sesame seeds from India, with the crisis-coordination meetings from October 2020. Competent for the fact and timing of the incident.

food.ec.europa.eu/safety/acn/acn-incidents/ethylene-oxide-incident-sesame-seeds_en

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Evaluation of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A levels in Indonesian nutmeg

Leni Febriyanti, Budiawan Budiawan, Harmoko Harmoko · Food Additives & Contaminants. Part B, Surveillance 19(1): 20-30 · 2026

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

A 2017–2023 monitoring programme for aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in nutmeg from farmers, traders and exporters in North Sulawesi, North Maluku and Maluku, Indonesia. Read in the abstract only, which does not give sample numbers. Competent for rates, exceedances and the moisture of positive samples.

doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2025.2577813

Evaluation of electron beam irradiation on the microbiological, phytochemicals, and aromatic profiles of three paprika (Capsicum annuum L.) varieties

Xuanxuan Yang, Junqing Bai, Xie Yongkang, Zhihua Geng, Qian Zhang, Jun Wang · Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 98: 103869 · 2024

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Three paprika varieties treated with electron-beam irradiation at doses up to 25 kGy, with microbial counts, carotenoids, capsaicin and volatiles. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the carotenoid losses at 25 kGy and the statements on microbial counts at 10 kGy.

doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2024.103869

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Food Irradiation: What You Need to Know

United States Food and Drug Administration

Government publication · High reliability · Speaks for United States

FDA consumer guidance stating that irradiation does not make food radioactive, and describing the radura label. Competent for the FDA position on those points.

www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/food-irradiation-what-you-need-know

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Fungal Biodeterioration, Aflatoxin Contamination, and Nutrient Value of “Suya Spices”

Segun Gbolagade Jonathan, Mary Adejoke Adeniyi, Michael Dare Asemoloye · Scientifica 2016: 4602036 · 2016

Academic paper · Read in full · Medium reliability

Five samples of suya spice bought at five places in Ibadan, with a mixture made in the laboratory as a control, examined for moulds, nutrients and aflatoxins. Read through Europe PMC: the abstract, the introduction, sections 2.1 to 2.3 and the discussion passage that restates the aflatoxin figures; the tables themselves were not opened, and the figures in the abstract and that passage agree. Competent for those five samples and for its own description of the mixture, which names no peanut. Five samples from one city on one occasion.

doi.org/10.1155/2016/4602036

Also listed under: Food science and processing; Culture and cuisine

Fungal Diversity, Toxigenic Potential, and Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in Fresh and Dried Chili Peppers from Retail Markets in Guangzhou, China

Maryam Tavakol Noorabadi, Ishara S Manawasinghe, Jiayu Xu, Caiqing Zhao, Naghmeh Afshari, Wei Dong, Antonio Francesco Logrieco, Kevin D Hyde · Toxins 18(4): 154 · 2026

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Fungi and six mycotoxins in fresh and dried chilli from retail markets in Guangzhou, China. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the fresh-versus-dried contrast and the highest levels reported.

doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040154

Gamma irradiation and storage effects on quality and safety of Himalayan paprika (Waer)

Omeera Ayob, Peerzada Rashid Hussain, Prashant Suradkar, Farah Naqash · LWT 147: 111667 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Traditional Himalayan paprika gamma-irradiated at 3, 6 and 9 kGy and stored under ambient conditions, with capsaicinoids, carotenoids, phenolic acids and microbial load. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the reductions the abstract reports; packaging and humidity are not stated there.

doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111667

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Growth and survival of Salmonella in ground black pepper (Piper nigrum)

Susanne E. Keller, Jane M. VanDoren, Elizabeth M. Grasso, Lindsay A. Halik · Food Microbiology 34(1): 182–188 · 2013

Academic paper · High reliability

A four-serovar Salmonella cocktail in ground black pepper: the water-activity threshold for growth at 35 °C, growth rates when wet, and survival for months at 25 and 35 °C under high and ambient humidity. Competent for growth and survival in ground pepper; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2012.12.002

Also listed under: Food science and processing

High-throughput LC-MS/MS method for the determination of 14 illegal dyes in complex food matrices and its application in a large-scale survey in Egypt

Menna Ragab, Omar Khaled, Nancy Elgendy, Fawzy Eissa, Mohamed Medhat · Journal of Hazardous Materials 491: 137905 · 2025

Academic paper · High reliability

A targeted LC-MS/MS method for fourteen named illegal dyes in chilli powder, sauces, flavourings and snacks, validated to EU Implementing Regulation 2021/808, and a survey of 2,350 samples in Egypt over four years. Read in the abstract. Competent for the method’s validated scope and the survey’s findings in that market.

doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137905

Also listed under: Chemistry; Standards and trade

Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium in black pepper and red pepper by gamma irradiation

Won-Jae Song, Hye-Jung Sung, Sung-Youn Kim, Kwang-Pyo Kim, Sangryeol Ryu, Dong-Hyun Kang · International Journal of Food Microbiology 172: 125–129 · 2014

Academic paper · High reliability

Gamma irradiation at 0–5 kGy of black pepper and dried red pepper inoculated with Salmonella Typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7, with CIELAB colour measured after treatment. Read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.11.017

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Influence of water activity on thermal resistance of microorganisms in low-moisture foods: a review

Roopesh M. Syamaladevi, Juming Tang, Rossana Villa-Rojas, Shyam Sablani, Brady Carter, Gaylon Campbell · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 15(2): 353–370 · 2016

Academic paper · High reliability

A review of water activity as a primary factor in the heat resistance of pathogens in low-moisture foods, and of how water activity itself changes with temperature, in a direction that depends on the food. Competent for the general principle; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12190

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Infrared Decontamination of Oregano: Effects on Bacillus cereus Spores, Water Activity, Color, and Volatile Compounds

Lovisa Eliasson, Patrik Libander, Maria Lövenklev, Sven Isaksson, Lilia Ahrné · Journal of Food Science 79(12): E2447–E2455 · 2014

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Oregano conditioned to water activity 0.88 and infrared-heated at 90 and 100 °C, with Bacillus cereus spore reduction, colour and headspace volatiles. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the spore reductions and the statement that carvacrol and thymol were only slightly affected.

doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12694

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Inoculation preparation affects survival of Salmonella enterica on whole black peppercorns and cumin seeds stored at low water activity

Lauren S. Bowman, Kim M. Waterman, Robert C. Williams, Monica A. Ponder · Journal of Food Protection 78(7): 1259–1265 · 2015

Academic paper · High reliability

Survival of Salmonella on whole peppercorns and cumin seeds dried to water activity 0.3 and held for 28 days, compared across inoculation methods. A methods study for validation work, competent for survival over that period; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-14-483

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Investigation of Elevated Lead & Chromium Levels: Cinnamon Applesauce Pouches (November 2023)

United States Food and Drug Administration · 2023

Government publication · High reliability · Speaks for United States

The FDA investigation of lead and chromium in cinnamon applesauce pouches traced to cinnamon processed in Ecuador, with the measured concentrations, the case counts reported by CDC, and FDA’s conclusion that economically motivated adulteration was the likely cause.

www.fda.gov/food/outbreaks-foodborne-illness/investigation-elevated-lead-chromium-levels-cinnamon-applesauce-pouches-november-2023

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Investigation of Virulence and Antibiotic-Resistance of Bacillus cereus Isolated from Various Spices

Sahar Torki Baghbadorani, Ebrahim Rahimi, Amir Shakerian · Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology 2023: 8390778 · 2023

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Bacillus cereus in 200 samples of eight spices from Isfahan province, Iran, with enterotoxin production and antibiotic resistance. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the overall prevalence and toxin findings; the resistance data are outside what it is cited for.

doi.org/10.1155/2023/8390778

Microbiological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Three Types of “Soumbara” from Seeds of African Locust Bean in Korhogo Markets, Côte d’Ivoire

Ollo Kambire, Konan Mathurin Yao, Andrée Emmanuelle Sika, Aminata Coulibaly, Zamble Bi Irie Abel Boli, Rose Koffi-Nevry · International Journal of Food Science 2021: 5572300 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Microbial counts, pH, acidity and moisture of 54 samples of granulated, powdered and paste soumbara from markets in Korhogo, Côte d’Ivoire. Read in the abstract and conclusions only. Competent for the ranges it reports and its judgement of them against the standard it used.

doi.org/10.1155/2021/5572300

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Microbiological quality of commercial Thua Nao, a Thai fermented soybean product

Kamonsri Suriyanoi, Pawida Chumpurat, Ross A. Beamon, Worawut Suvegoon, Ugrit Suksai, Ekachai Chukeatirote · Pharmaceutical Sciences Asia 45(4): 231–235 · 2018

Academic paper · Read in full · Medium reliability

Twenty-four samples bought in local markets, nine fresh and fifteen dried, twenty from Chiang Rai and four from Phayao, plated for total bacteria and moulds and tested for five disease-causing bacteria. Read in full from the journal’s file, with Table 2; Table 1, the counts sample by sample, was read only through the ranges the text gives. Competent for what was and was not found in those samples, and for the forms sold, the powder among them. A presence-or-absence result by culture: it gives no counts for the bacteria it tested for, and its authors call the data preliminary.

doi.org/10.29090/psa.2018.04.017.0061

Also listed under: Food science and processing; Culture and cuisine

Modeling the combined impact of water activity and temperature on Salmonella Montevideo thermal inactivation on dried chili peppers

Natoavina T. Faliarizao, Jemel Fanfan, Narindra Randriamiarintsoa, Muhammad Siddiq, Teresa M. Bergholz, Kirk D. Dolan · Journal of Food Science 90(4): e70201 · 2025

Academic paper · High reliability

Salmonella Montevideo on commercial dried crushed red chilli, equilibrated to water activities of 0.33, 0.50 and 0.97 and heated at 55–70 °C in thin aluminium test cells; D- and z-values with confidence intervals. Open access; read in full, including Table 1. Competent for heat resistance on that product under those conditions.

doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.70201

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Monitoring of Aflatoxins B1, G1, B2, and G2 in Spices from Riyadh Markets by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Mohamed Khabbouchi, Nour Guesmi, Abdulhameed Bin Sultan, Abdulaziz Alkhuzayyim, Gharib Abdelhalim Abdo, Adel Alhotan, Walid Aljarbou · International Journal of Food Science 2024: 8560378 · 2024

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 by LC-MS/MS in 1,053 spice samples from Riyadh markets in 2022. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the proportion positive and the highest levels by spice named there.

doi.org/10.1155/2024/8560378

Mycotoxins Occurrence in Herbs, Spices, Dietary Supplements, and Their Exposure Assessment

Joanna Kanabus, Marcin Bryła, Krystyna Leśnowolska-Wnuczek, Agnieszka Waśkiewicz, Magdalena Twarużek · Toxins 18(1): 20 · 2025

Academic paper · High reliability

A review of mycotoxin occurrence in herbs, spices and supplements and of the methods used to measure it, with a table of each method’s advantages and limitations. Open access; the analytical sections were read in full. Competent for how mycotoxins are measured in spice matrices.

doi.org/10.3390/toxins18010020

Also listed under: Chemistry

Natural Occurrence of Main Mycotoxins in Herbs and Spices Commercialized in Italy

Katia Gialluisi, Nada El Darra, Maria Giovanna Nicoletti, Michele Solfrizzo, Lucia Gambacorta · Foods 14(11): 1889 · 2025

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Eleven mycotoxins in 98 samples of spices, herbs and mixtures sold in Italy. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the overall occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A and the one sample over the limit.

doi.org/10.3390/foods14111889

Natural Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in Spices Marketed in the Czech Republic during 2019-2020

Darina Pickova, Jakub Toman, Vladimir Ostry, Frantisek Malir · Foods 10(12): 2984 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Ochratoxin A by HPLC with fluorescence detection in 324 samples of 54 spices on the Czech market, 2019–2020. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the overall occurrence and range.

doi.org/10.3390/foods10122984

Occurrence of Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins during Smoked Paprika Production

Rocío Casquete, Alicia Rodríguez, Alejandro Hernández, Alberto Martín, Teresa Bartolomé, Juan José Córdoba, María G. Córdoba · Journal of Food Protection 80(12): 2068–2077 · 2017

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Moisture, water activity, fungi and mycotoxins in dried peppers from six traditional La Vera dryers, and mycotoxin production by isolates inoculated onto smoked dried peppers held at high humidity. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the ranges and humidities the abstract reports.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-17-164

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Prevalence of Salmonella in 11 spices offered for sale from retail establishments and in imported shipments offered for entry to the United States

Guodong Zhang, Lijun Hu, Régis Pouillot, Aparna Tatavarthy, Jane M. Van Doren, et al. · Journal of Food Protection 80(11): 1791–1805 · 2017

Academic paper · High reliability

FDA survey of 7,250 retail samples of 11 spice types in the United States in 2013–2015, 125 g per analysis, with import-shipment prevalence for the same spices in 2011–2015. Competent for US retail and import prevalence; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-17-072

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Prevalence, level and distribution of Salmonella in shipments of imported capsicum and sesame seed spice offered for entry to the United States: observations and modeling results

Jane M. Van Doren, Robert J. Blodgett, Régis Pouillot, Ann Westerman, et al. · Food Microbiology 36(2): 149–160 · 2013

Academic paper · High reliability

Salmonella prevalence and contamination levels in 299 imported dried capsicum and 233 sesame seed shipments, 1,500 g examined per shipment, and what sample size a sampling plan needs to find contamination. Read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2013.05.003

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Prevalence, serotype diversity, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella in imported shipments of spice offered for entry to the United States, FY2007–FY2009

Jane M. Van Doren, Daria Kleinmeier, Thomas S. Hammack, Ann Westerman · Food Microbiology 34(2): 239–251 · 2013

Academic paper · High reliability

FDA sampling of imported spice shipments offered for US entry in fiscal years 2007–2009, with prevalence by plant part, grind and export country. Competent for import-shipment prevalence in those years; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2012.10.002

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Prevalence, Toxin Genes, and Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Bacillus cereus Isolates from Spices in Antalya and Isparta Provinces in Türkiye

Sena Çürek, Burak Geniş, Banu Özden Tuncer, Yasin Tuncer · Indian Journal of Microbiology 63(4): 549-561 · 2023

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Bacillus cereus group bacteria in 70 packaged and unpackaged spice samples from Antalya and Isparta, Türkiye. Read in the abstract only. Competent for prevalence and the packaged-versus-unpackaged comparison.

doi.org/10.1007/s12088-023-01111-7

Processing of Biltong (Dried Beef) to Achieve USDA-FSIS 5-log Reduction of Salmonella without a Heat Lethality Step

Caitlin E. Karolenko, Arjun Bhusal, Jacob L. Nelson, Peter M. Muriana · Microorganisms 8(5): 791 · 2020

Academic paper · Read in full · High reliability

Biltong processing in the United States, with an account of the marinade — coriander as the predominant spice, black pepper, salt and vinegar — and premixed commercial biltong spices. Read in full through Europe PMC; cited only for the seasoning. Its microbial validation is not cited. Open access under CC BY.

doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8050791

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Public health risk associated with the co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in spices, herbs, and nuts in Lebanon

Rouaa Daou, Maha Hoteit, Khlood Bookari, Karine Joubrane, Lydia Rabbaa Khabbaz, Ali Ismail, Richard G Maroun, André El Khoury · Frontiers in Public Health 10: 1072727 · 2022

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in 198 samples of spices, herbs and nuts in Lebanon, with an exposure assessment. Read in the abstract only. Competent for occurrence and mean levels; the risk estimates are not cited.

doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1072727

Quantification of Biogenic Amines in 35 Korean Cottage Industry Traditional Gochujang (Fermented Red Pepper Paste) Products

Srinivasan Ramalingam, Ashutosh Bahuguna, SeMi Lim, Ah-ryeong Joe, Jong-Suk Lee, So-Young Kim, Myunghee Kim · Foods 10(10): 2370 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Biogenic amines in the same 35 cottage-industry gochujang products by HPLC. Read in the abstract and conclusions only. Competent for the ranges of each amine.

doi.org/10.3390/foods10102370

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Radiation processing for public health: Croatia’s contribution to food safety and sterilisation practices

Ivana Tartaro Bujak, Željka Knežević, Marija Majer · Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 76(1): 16–23 · 2025

Academic paper · Read in full · High reliability

A review by the staff of a Croatian irradiation facility of what radiation processing is used for, with the tonnage of food irradiated in the European Union and in Croatia in recent years. Read for the sections on decontamination and on food irradiation in Croatia. Competent for those volumes and for the legal dose limit; written by practitioners of the method.

doi.org/10.2478/aiht-2025-76-3960

Also listed under: Food science and processing; History and archaeology

Radio-frequency heating to inactivate Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on black and red pepper spice

Sung-Youn Kim, Hun-Gu Sagong, Sang Ho Choi, Sangryeol Ryu, Dong-Hyun Kang · International Journal of Food Microbiology 153(1-2): 171–175 · 2012

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Radio-frequency heating at 27.12 MHz of inoculated black pepper and red pepper for 40 to 50 s, with pathogen reductions and colour. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the reductions and the statement that colour was not affected.

doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.11.004

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Radio-Frequency Processing for Inactivation of Salmonella enterica and Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 in Black Peppercorn

Xinyao Wei, Soon Kiat Lau, Jayne Stratton, Sibel Irmak, Andreia Bianchini, Jeyamkondan Subbiah · Journal of Food Protection 81(10): 1685–1695 · 2018

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Radio-frequency heating of inoculated black peppercorns conditioned to 12.7 per cent moisture, with log reductions and quality measures after treatment. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the reduction after 2.5 min and the statement that colour, piperine and most volatiles did not differ significantly from the control.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-080

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Radiofrequency inactivation of Salmonella in black pepper and dried basil leaves using in-package steaming

Surabhi Wason, Rossana Villa Rojas, Jeyamkondan Subbiah · Journal of Food Protection 87(2): 100209 · 2024

Academic paper · High reliability

Radiofrequency heating of black peppercorns and dried basil inside a package with a one-way steam vent, designed to treat the spice after packing so it cannot be recontaminated afterwards. Competent for the laboratory result; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.jfp.2023.100209

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Risk Profile: Pathogens and Filth in Spices (2017 update, with the 2013 draft profile)

United States Food and Drug Administration · 2017

Government publication · High reliability · Speaks for United States

FDA sampling of imported and retail spices for Salmonella and filth, a review of spice-associated outbreaks from 1973 to 2010, and an account of steam, irradiation and ethylene oxide treatments and their effect on spice quality. Competent for US prevalence data and the treatments reviewed; prevalence figures describe sampled shipments at entry, not spices at retail.

www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-risk-safety-assessments/risk-profile-pathogen-and-filth-spices

Also listed under: Food science and processing; Standards and trade

Salmonella prevalence and total microbial and spore populations in spices imported to Japan

Y. Hara-Kudo, K. Ohtsuka, Y. Onoue, Y. Otomo, I. Furukawa, A. Yamaji, Y. Segawa, K. Takatori · Journal of Food Protection 69(10): 2519–2523 · 2006

Academic paper · High reliability

259 samples of 40 spice types imported to Japan, tested for Salmonella and for aerobic bacterial and spore counts. Competent for that sample; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-69.10.2519

Seasonal Variation of Aflatoxin Levels in Selected Spices Available in Retail Markets: Estimation of Exposure and Risk Assessment

Farah Naz, Francis Verpoort, Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Nadia Naheed, Muhammad Rafique Asi · Toxins 14(9): 597 · 2022

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Aflatoxins and tocopherols in 603 retail spice samples from winter and summer. Read in the abstract only, which does not state the country or years. Competent for the proportions positive by season and the spices with the highest and lowest means.

doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090597

Simultaneous Detection of Ochratoxin A and Aflatoxins in Industrial and Traditional Red and isot Pepper Flakes along with Dietary Exposure Risk Assessment

Sebahat Oztekin, Funda Karbancioglu-Guler · ACS Omega 7(36): 31756-31766 · 2022

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A by HPLC with fluorescence detection in industrially and traditionally dried red pepper and isot flakes in Türkiye. Read in the abstract only. Competent for occurrence, ranges and exceedances; the exposure estimates are not cited.

doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c02236

Spore prevalence and toxigenicity of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis isolates from U.S. retail spices

Upasana Hariram, Ronald Labbé · Journal of Food Protection 78(3): 590–596 · 2015

Academic paper · High reliability

Aerobic spore counts and Bacillus cereus and B. thuringiensis spores in 247 retail spices bought in five US states, with the toxin genes the isolates carried. Competent for that sample; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-14-380

Stress response of Salmonella Montevideo adapted to red pepper powders at various humidities and resistance to near-infrared heating

Jae-Ik Lee, Sang-Soon Kim, Dong-Hyun Kang · Food Research International 162: 111972 · 2022

Academic paper · High reliability

Salmonella Montevideo inoculated onto red pepper powder at controlled humidities; heat resistance and the viable-but-non-culturable state after storage at 30 °C and 40% relative humidity. Read in the abstract. Competent for that finding in that product under those conditions.

doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111972

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Survival of Salmonella in spices and growth in cooked food

Yurie Urabe, Yuji Minai, Minoru Haga, Yoshiko Sugita-Konishi, Atsushi Ishiguro, Yukiko Hara-Kudo · Journal of the Food Hygienic Society of Japan 49(2): 70–75 · 2008

Academic paper · Medium reliability

Survival of three Salmonella serovars in black and red pepper over 28 days, and growth of two of them in cooked foods to which spice was added. In Japanese; read in the English abstract only, so its storage conditions are not known here.

doi.org/10.3358/shokueishi.49.70

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Synergistic Effects of Mild Heating and Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma on the Reduction of Bacillus Cereus in Red Pepper Powder

Eun Bi Jeon, Man-Seok Choi, Ji Yoon Kim, Shin Young Park · Foods 9(2): 171 · 2020

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Red pepper powder inoculated with Bacillus cereus and treated with mild heat at 60 °C, dielectric barrier discharge plasma, or both. Read in the abstract and conclusions only. Competent for the log reductions and the colour result.

doi.org/10.3390/foods9020171

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Systemic drivers of toxic food adulteration: lead chromate in turmeric across eastern India

Jenna E. Forsyth, Manu Sinha, Amogh Bandekar, Dinsha Mistree, Manoj Parida, Emily Nash, Lavanya Nambiar, Christlee Elmera · npj Science of Food 10: 220 · 2026

Academic paper · High reliability

503 turmeric root and powder samples from 34 cities in five eastern Indian states, 2021–2023, measured by handheld X-ray fluorescence calibrated against ICP-MS, with supply-chain interviews. Open access; the methods and results were read in full. Competent for the lead and chromium measurements and for how the XRF method performed against ICP-MS. Cited here for measurement only.

doi.org/10.1038/s41538-026-00867-8

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing; Standards and trade

Temperature and water activity interactively regulate the growth and aflatoxin biosynthesis of Aspergillus flavus in dried red chili peppers: A predictive modeling and multi-omics study

Fenglan Zhou, Yaoyao Su, Kewei Chen, Muying Du, Zsolt Zalán, Sameh Awad, Jianquan Kan · International Journal of Food Microbiology 462: 112089 · 2026

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

Growth and aflatoxin production of four Aspergillus flavus isolates on dried red chilli at 15–42 °C and water activity 0.86–0.98, with predictive models and omics. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the optima for growth and for toxin production, kept apart; not for growth limits, which the abstract does not give.

doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2026.112089

Also listed under: Food science and processing

The effect of γ-irradiation on chemical composition, microbial load and sensory properties of Sicilian oregano

Edoardo Napoli, Agata Mazzaglia, Cristina Restuccia, Pietro Ragni, Carmela Maria Lanza, Giuseppe Ruberto · LWT - Food Science and Technology 72: 566–572 · 2016

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Cultivated Sicilian oregano gamma-irradiated at 5 and 10 kGy, with essential oil composition, microbial load and sensory descriptors. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the direction of the change in oil profile and the microbial result.

doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.05.025

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

The Impact of Microbial Diversity on Biogenic Amines Formation in Grasshopper Sub Shrimp Paste During the Fermentation

Xue Sang, Kexin Li, Yaolei Zhu, Xinxiu Ma, Hongshun Hao, Jingran Bi, Gongliang Zhang, Hongman Hou · Frontiers in Microbiology 11: 782 · 2020

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

Microbial diversity, salinity, pH and biogenic amines through the fermentation of a Chinese shrimp paste, with amine production by 102 halotolerant isolates. Read in the abstract only. Competent for the genera associated with biogenic amine formation in that product.

doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00782

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Thermal inactivation kinetics of Salmonella and Enterococcus faecium NRRL B-2354 on dried basil leaves

Tushar Verma, Byron D. Chaves, Terry Howell, Jeyamkondan Subbiah · Food Microbiology 96: 103710 · 2021

Academic paper · High reliability

Dry-heat inactivation of a five-serovar Salmonella cocktail and its surrogate Enterococcus faecium on dried basil leaves equilibrated to water activities of 0.40, 0.55 and 0.70 and heated at 70, 75 and 80 °C. Competent for D-values on basil under those conditions; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2020.103710

Also listed under: Food science and processing

U.S. FDA Regulatory Monitoring of Ochratoxin A in Human Foods: 2008-2022

Tabitha J Miller, Anthony Adeuya, Lauren P Robin · Food Safety 14(2): 48-57 · 2026

Academic paper · Abstract read · Medium reliability

US FDA compliance-programme data on ochratoxin A in over 3,700 food samples, fiscal years 2008–2022. Read in the abstract only. Competent for overall detection and the food groups with the highest findings; it does not separate spices in the abstract.

doi.org/10.14252/foodsafetyfscj.d-25-00002

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Unraveling microbial diversity and physicochemical hazard level in Thai traditional fermented shrimp paste (Kapi)

Thitikorn Mahidsanan, et al. · PeerJ 14: e20864 · 2026

Academic paper · High reliability

Microbial hazards and histamine in seven Thai kapi products made by different practices. Competent for the variation it measured in those products; not a survey of shrimp paste in general. Open access under CC BY.

doi.org/10.7717/peerj.20864

Also listed under: Chemistry; Food science and processing

Use of superheated steam to inactivate Salmonella enterica serovars Typhimurium and Enteritidis contamination on black peppercorns, pecans, and almonds

Choongjin Ban, Dae Han Lee, Youngje Jo, Hyeryeon Bae, Haejin Seong, Sang Oh Kim, Seokwon Lim, Young Jin Choi · Journal of Food Engineering 222: 284–291 · 2018

Academic paper · High reliability

Superheated-steam inactivation of inoculated Salmonella on black peppercorns, pecans and almonds, with D- and z-values and checks on moisture, colour and texture. Competent for the laboratory treatment; read in the abstract.

doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.11.036

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Water Activity (aw) in Foods — Inspection Technical Guide No. 39

United States Food and Drug Administration · 1984

Government publication · High reliability · Speaks for United States

An inspectors’ guide defining water activity as a vapour-pressure ratio, distinguishing it from total moisture, and giving the minimum water activity for Clostridium botulinum growth. Old but definitional; competent for those definitions.

www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/inspection-technical-guides/water-activity-aw-foods

Also listed under: Food science and processing

Atlas of Poisonous Plants in Hong Kong — A Clinical Toxicology Perspective: Aleurites moluccana

Hospital Authority Toxicology Reference Laboratory, Hong Kong

Government publication · High reliability

Clinical toxicology of candlenut: the toxic parts, the compounds responsible, and the features of poisoning from the raw seed. Competent for the hazard; it does not quantify how far roasting removes it.

www3.ha.org.hk/toxicplant/en/aleurites_moluccana.html

Also listed under: Plants and growing

Coumarin in flavourings and other food ingredients with flavouring properties — Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food

European Food Safety Authority · 2008

Government publication · High reliability

Tolerable daily intake for coumarin. Directly relevant to cassia cinnamon, which is a significant dietary source.

www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/793

Also listed under: Food science and processing; Standards and trade

Evaluation of eugenol and related hydroxyallylbenzene derivatives

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), WHO Food Additives Series

Standards body publication · High reliability

Toxicological evaluation of eugenol as a flavouring substance, including an acceptable daily intake. The specific current figure must be read from the monograph rather than quoted second-hand, and applies to eugenol as an isolated substance rather than to whole cloves.

Also listed under: Food science and processing; Standards and trade

FDA Issues Advisory on Star Anise "Teas"

United States Food and Drug Administration · 2003

Government publication · High reliability

A regulatory advisory prompted by illness reports associated with star anise infusions, where Chinese star anise was suspected of being mixed with the toxic Japanese species. Relevant to species identity and to infusions specifically, not to ordinary culinary use of verified Illicium verum.

Also listed under: Plants and growing; Standards and trade

In vivo and in silico studies of Dennettia tripetala essential oil reveal the potential harmful effects of habitual consumption of the plant seed

Michael Oluwatoyin Daniyan, Temilade Feyi Adeyipo, Idris Ajayi Oyemitan, Patience Boluwatife Okwuese, Victor Olukayode Ekundina, Moses Atanda Akanmu · Toxicology Reports 8, from p. 1488 · 2021

Academic paper · Read in full · Medium reliability

Rats given the oil distilled from dried seeds, once and repeatedly, with a computer prediction of the toxicity of the oil’s known constituents; from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Read as the full text held by Europe PMC: the abstract, the introduction and the method of distilling the oil. The results tables and the discussion were read only in the passages on the oil’s constituents. Cited for how the seed is eaten and served in southern Nigeria and for the composition of the oil, both of which it reports from earlier papers not read here, and for what its own abstract concludes. It tested a distilled oil in animals; it is not evidence about eating the fruit, and it is recorded as one study.

doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.07.019

Also listed under: Chemistry; Culture and cuisine

Lead poisoning (fact sheet)

World Health Organization · 2026

Government publication · High reliability

The WHO summary of lead toxicity: no known safe blood lead concentration, and permanent effects on children’s brain development. It does not discuss spices; it is cited for what lead does, not for how it enters food.

www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health

Mercury accumulation in vegetable Houttuynia cordata Thunb. from two different geological areas in southwest China and implications for human consumption

Wang, Li, Feng, Wang, Li, Wang, Fan · Scientific Reports 11: 52 · 2021

Academic paper · Abstract read · High reliability

A study of mercury in plants and soil from 25 sites in two counties of Guizhou, one with mercury mines and one without. Read as the full text held by Europe PMC, in its abstract and its paragraph on the collection of samples; the results and the exposure estimates were not read, so no figure is cited. Cited for two things: that the plant is both foraged and grown as a vegetable in Guizhou, and the authors’ own summary of what they found and advise.

doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80183-7

Also listed under: Plants and growing

Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food on a request from the Commission to review the toxicology of a number of dyes illegally present in food in the EU

European Food Safety Authority, EFSA Journal 263: 1–71 · 2005

Government publication · High reliability

The toxicological review prompted by the 2005 Sudan I findings in chilli products: concludes that Sudan I to IV, Para Red and Rhodamine B are or may be genotoxic and carcinogenic, Orange II excepted. Competent for the hazard of these dyes; it does not measure how often they occur.

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Opinion on glycyrrhizinic acid and its ammonium salt

Scientific Committee on Food, European Commission · 2003

Government publication · High reliability

Toxicological assessment of glycyrrhizinic acid, the sweet compound of liquorice root, covering the mineralocorticoid effects — raised blood pressure and lowered potassium — observed with sustained intake, and the wide variation in individual susceptibility. Competent for the existence and mechanism of the effect and for the fact that habitual consumers are the population at issue. It concerns the compound and liquorice confectionery rather than occasional culinary use of the root.

food.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-12/sci-com_scf_out186_en.pdf

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Food — Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain

European Food Safety Authority, EFSA Journal 724 · 2008

Government publication · High reliability

The EFSA assessment on which the EU limits for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons rest: that several PAHs are genotoxic carcinogens and that a group of four is a more suitable indicator than benzo[a]pyrene alone. A risk assessment, not a regulation.

Public statement on the use of herbal medicinal products containing estragole

European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC)

Government publication · High reliability

Regulatory assessment of estragole exposure from herbal preparations, including fennel. Concerns concentrated preparations and sustained medicinal use; it does not establish a hazard from culinary quantities of fennel seed, and must not be cited as though it does.

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Ricin and Ricinus communis in pharmacology and toxicology — from ancient use and "Papyrus Ebers" to modern perspectives and "poisonous plant of the year 2018"

Hans Franke, Reinhard Scholl, Achim Aigner · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 392: 1181–1208 · 2019

Academic paper · High reliability

Review of ricin and castor-seed toxicity — the toxin, its mechanism, human and animal poisonings. Competent for the toxicity of castor seed; not a source on the safety of any particular fermented product.

doi.org/10.1007/s00210-019-01691-6

Risk assessment of aflatoxins in food

EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) · European Food Safety Authority, EFSA Journal 18(3): 6040 · 2020

Government publication · High reliability

The EFSA assessment of aflatoxins: their origin in Aspergillus moulds, aflatoxin B1 as genotoxic and carcinogenic with the liver as the critical organ, and the dietary sources of exposure. A risk assessment, not a regulation.

efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6040

Risk assessment of ochratoxin A in food

EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) · European Food Safety Authority, EFSA Journal 18(5): 6113 · 2020

Government publication · High reliability

The EFSA assessment of ochratoxin A: produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium moulds, kidney toxicity as the critical effect, the withdrawal of the earlier tolerable weekly intake, and occurrence data in which chilli and other spices carry some of the highest concentrations. A risk assessment, not a regulation.

efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6113

Ruta graveolens L. — Poisons Information Monograph 475

J. Pronczuk · International Programme on Chemical Safety (WHO, ILO and UNEP), INCHEM · 1989

Government publication · High reliability

The intergovernmental poisons monograph on rue: its toxic constituents (furanocoumarins, alkaloids, essential oil), phototoxic dermatitis, its use as an abortifacient and the resulting poisonings, and clinical management. Competent for toxicity and the pregnancy hazard; names Ruta chalepensis as of equal toxicological importance. It does not establish a safe culinary quantity, and must not be read as though it does.

www.inchem.org/documents/pims/plant/rutagrav.htm

Scientific Opinion on the risks for public health related to the presence of opium alkaloids in poppy seeds

European Food Safety Authority, CONTAM Panel · 2011

Government publication · High reliability

Assessment of morphine and related alkaloids present on poppy seeds as a result of contamination from the plant during harvest, rather than from the seed itself. Competent for the origin of the alkaloids, for the large variation between batches and between processing methods, and for the fact that washing and heat treatment substantially reduce them. It is not a source on workplace drug testing policy.

www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2405

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Study of the Contents of Analogues of Aristolochic Acid in Houttuynia cordata by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Yu, Gao, Xu, Guo, Guo, Tan, Liu, Wan · Foods 11(3): 302 · 2022

Academic paper · Read in full · Medium reliability

An analytical study from Nanchang University. Read as the full text held by Europe PMC: the abstract, the introduction, the materials and sample preparation, the limits of detection in Table 3, the recoveries in Table 4, the results for 22 samples in Table 5 and the conclusions. The paragraphs on optimising the clean-up were not read. Competent for whether four named compounds were found, and at what level, in dried plants from 22 named places in China. It measures; it does not assess. It does not say which part of the plant was analysed, it tested for four compounds and no others, and its statement that aristolactam AII has not been reported to be genotoxic is a statement about the literature, not a finding.

doi.org/10.3390/foods11030302

Also listed under: Chemistry

Turmeric means 'yellow' in Bengali: Lead chromate pigments added to turmeric threaten public health across Bangladesh

Jenna E. Forsyth, et al. · Environmental Research · 2019

Academic paper · High reliability

Documented lead chromate adulteration of turmeric in specific supply chains. Evidence is specific to the regions studied and should not be generalised to all turmeric.

Also listed under: Food science and processing; Standards and trade

Assessment report on Foeniculum vulgare Miller, fructus

European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC)

Government publication · High reliability

Regulatory review of fennel fruit as a herbal medicine: composition, the traditional-use evidence base, and the committee’s estragole exposure assessment together with the duration limits it drew from it. Concerns medicinal preparations — teas and extracts taken repeatedly — and states no position on fennel seed used as a spice.

www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/herbal/foeniculi-dulcis-fructus

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Assessment report on Illicium verum Hook. f., fructus

European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC)

Government publication · High reliability

Regulatory review of star anise fruit, including composition and the documented adulteration of Illicium verum with Illicium anisatum. A medicines assessment, so its dosing context is medicinal rather than culinary.

Also listed under: Plants and growing; Standards and trade

Assessment report on Zingiber officinale Roscoe, rhizoma

European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC)

Government publication · High reliability

Regulatory review of ginger rhizome as a herbal medicine: composition, the clinical and traditional-use evidence base, and the contraindications and precautions the committee accepted. A medicines assessment, so its exposures are medicinal preparations rather than food.

www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/herbal/zingiberis-rhizoma

Also listed under: Chemistry; Standards and trade

Cinnamon: Usefulness and Safety

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health · 2025

Clinical guidance · High reliability

Clinical evidence for cinnamon supplementation, chiefly in type 2 diabetes and blood lipids, and the coumarin question as it bears on cassia. Assesses supplements, not the spice jar.

www.nccih.nih.gov/health/cinnamon

Complementary Health Approaches for Chronic Pain: What the Science Says

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health

Clinical guidance · High reliability

A clinician-facing summary of the trial evidence for complementary approaches to chronic pain, including topical capsaicin preparations. Its capsaicin evidence concerns creams and plasters applied to skin; nothing in it concerns eating chilli.

www.nccih.nih.gov/health/providers/digest/complementary-health-approaches-for-chronic-pain-science

Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed)

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health

Government publication · High reliability

Peer-reviewed summaries of what is known about substances in breast milk and their effects on a nursing infant, including herbal products. Competent for lactation questions specifically; it is not a general pregnancy reference and is not an efficacy reference except where it reviews the evidence for a galactagogue claim directly.

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501922

Garlic: Usefulness and Safety

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health · 2025

Clinical guidance · High reliability

Clinical evidence for garlic supplementation in blood lipids, blood pressure and cancer risk, together with bleeding risk and anticoagulant interaction. Concerns supplements; the effect sizes reported are small.

www.nccih.nih.gov/health/garlic

Ginger: Usefulness and Safety

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health · 2025

Clinical guidance · High reliability

Clinical evidence for ginger across nausea, motion sickness, chemotherapy-associated symptoms and osteoarthritis, with the quality of that evidence stated per indication. Concerns dietary supplements rather than culinary ginger.

www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger

Guideline: Sodium intake for adults and children

World Health Organization · 2012

Government publication · High reliability

A systematic-review-based guideline on dietary sodium and its relationship to blood pressure and cardiovascular risk. Competent for the sodium–blood-pressure relationship, which is dietary rather than medicinal exposure and is therefore one of the very few health findings in this catalogue that concerns the amounts people actually eat. It is about sodium, not about salt as a seasoning ingredient, and says nothing about the form salt is sold in.

www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241504836

Also listed under: Standards and trade

LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health · 2025

Government publication · High reliability

Peer-reviewed records of hepatotoxicity associated with drugs and herbal products, each carrying an explicit likelihood score. Authoritative on whether a substance is an established cause of liver injury; it does not assess efficacy, and its records concern supplements rather than food.

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547852

Peppermint Oil: Usefulness and Safety

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health

Clinical guidance · High reliability

Clinical evidence for peppermint oil, principally in irritable bowel syndrome, with the quality of the evidence stated per indication. Its subject throughout is peppermint oil in enteric-coated capsules — a pharmaceutical preparation designed to reach the intestine intact — and it states no position on peppermint leaf, peppermint tea or mint as a culinary herb.

www.nccih.nih.gov/health/peppermint-oil

Questions and Answers on Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)

United States Food and Drug Administration

Government publication · High reliability

The regulatory position on monosodium glutamate: its generally-recognised-as-safe status, the labelling requirement, and the agency’s summary of the evidence on reported short-term reactions. Competent for the regulatory status and for the state of the evidence on the reported symptom complex. It is not a source for glutamate biochemistry or for culinary use.

www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/questions-and-answers-monosodium-glutamate-msg

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Turmeric: Usefulness and Safety

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, National Institutes of Health · 2025

Clinical guidance · High reliability

A US government summary of the clinical evidence for turmeric and curcumin, and of the reported harms. Its subject is the supplement literature: it assesses concentrated and bioavailability-enhanced preparations, and states no position on turmeric used as a seasoning.

www.nccih.nih.gov/health/turmeric

Major food allergens under FALCPA and the FASTER Act (Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act 2004; Food Allergy Safety, Treatment, Education and Research Act 2021)

United States Food and Drug Administration

Government publication · High reliability

The nine major food allergens requiring declaration in the United States: milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, soybeans and — since 1 January 2023 — sesame. Competent for the United States labelling position. Note that it does not designate celery or mustard, which the EU does, so the two jurisdictions genuinely differ on two ingredients in this catalogue.

www.fda.gov/food/food-allergensgluten-free-guidance-documents-regulatory-information/food-allergen-labeling-and-consumer-protection-act-2004-questions-and-answers

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, Annex II

European Parliament and Council of the European Union · 2011

Government publication · High reliability

Annex II lists the fourteen substances and products that must be declared as allergens on food sold in the EU and Northern Ireland. Three are relevant to this catalogue: celery, mustard and sesame seeds. Competent for what must be declared and for nothing else — it is a labelling instrument, not a clinical one, and absence from Annex II is not a statement that no one is allergic to a substance.

eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2011/1169/oj

Also listed under: Standards and trade

Essential Oil and Liquid Potpourri Poisoning in Animals

MSD Veterinary Manual

Veterinary guidance · High reliability

Toxicosis from concentrated essential oils in companion animals, including the reason cats are disproportionately affected — deficient glucuronide conjugation, which is the pathway most phenolic compounds are cleared by. Competent for the oils and for the species difference. It is not a source about culinary spice, and the distinction between an oil and the plant it came from is the whole of its relevance here.

www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/household-hazards/essential-oil-and-liquid-potpourri-poisoning-in-animals

Garlic and Onion (Allium spp) Toxicosis in Animals

Cristine Hayes · MSD Veterinary Manual · 2024

Veterinary guidance · High reliability

Mechanism, species susceptibility, reported thresholds and clinical course of Allium poisoning in companion and production animals. Specifically addresses dehydrated and powdered forms, which is what makes it competent for a question about seasoning rather than about vegetables.

www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/food-hazards/garlic-and-onion-allium-spp-toxicosis-in-animals

Salt Toxicosis in Animals

MSD Veterinary Manual

Veterinary guidance · High reliability

Sodium ion intoxication in animals, its dependence on water availability, and reported acute lethal doses. Relevant to heavily salted human food given to a pet; not a source about spices generally.

www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/salt-toxicosis/salt-toxicosis-in-animals